The Rise of the Modern: Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Evolution of Humanness (Part 2)

Prepared Core Technique in the Late Acheulean of South Africa: A Question of Transitions

Because the earliest archaeological criteria for 'modern behaviour' are neither constant in time nor universal in space, there is much debate on the definition of modernity. This paper focuses on the use of prepared core technology in the Middle Pleistocene of South Africa and describes a late Acheulean quartzite factory site in the Dry Harts valley near Taung, which shows a developed use of the Victoria West technique. The site demonstrates the Acheulean origins of Middle Stone Age stone working techniques - the basis of one definition of modernity. Although simple flaking patterns are dominant, the upper limits of the prepared core technology are evident. The MSA differs mainly in the production of smaller, lighter flakes rather than in method. With the first Victoria West assemblage described from an unselected and undisturbed context, this Harts River site demonstrates that the 'roots' of modernity are deep in time, even if they are rare or inconsistently expressed in the archaeological record.

Late Pleistocene Technology at Rose Cottage Cave: A Search for "Modern" Behaviour in an MSA Context

Recent excavations at Rose Cottage Cave, located in the Free State, South Africa, have revealed both a transitional assemblage, dated to c. 20,000 BP and a final Middle Stone Age (MSA) assemblage dated to c. 28,000 BP. Preliminary analysis of these assemblages indicates that the technological change which occurred during the MSA/LSA transition was not a dramatic innovation in technology, but rather a shift in the emphasis of production from a level of technology already in place. Although distinct from the overlying Robberg assemblage at Rose Cottage Cave, these late Pleistocene assemblages contain few typical MSA artefacts, such as blades, or pointed flake blades. Instead, they can best be defined by flaking technology, and demonstrate a level of continuity between the MSA and the LSA. The methods of lithic production, degree of standardization, and the spatial use of the cave will be examined in an attempt to determine if the current historical definitions of modernity can be applied to these late Pleistocene assemblages. In addition, the broader implications for southern African archaeology, of determining the technological attributes associated with a gradual, and possibly non-contemporaneous MSA/LSA transition will be discussed.

Behavioural Changes at Rose Cottage Cave, South Africa

In Rose Cottage Cave there is a marked difference in the spatial patterns of Later Stone Age (LSA) and Middle Stone Age (MSA) occupations. In the Later Stone Age, activity areas and features are well-defined. Hearths, for example, are often stone-lined and stone-surrounded, whereas Middle Stone Age hearths are barely defined pits in sand, or patches of charcoal. Cognitive and cultural differences between LSA and MSA peoples are examined.

Did Early Anatomically Modern Humans at Klasies River have Modern Minds?

The study of the evolution of the modern mind is plagued by problems of definition and is lacking in an explicit methodology. The criteria commonly used to recognise the emergence of the modern mind are traits like blade manufacture, personal ornaments, and art associated with the Palaeolithic in Europe. The Upper Palaeolithic is a unique regional phenomenon and has no equivalent in Africa. The emergence of the modern mind and its behavioural correlates should be viewed from a holistic perspective that disregards the Cartesian split between genes and culture. Within an evolutionary framework a comparative approach allows the use of universals or cross-cultural regularities as predictive rules, rather than simple analogues. What these universals of behaviour will predict will depend on the particular context in which they are applied. The methodology proposed here and developed in the study of the Klasies River site, South Africa, is the delineation of universals that characterise the modern mind. These universals link ethno-history and recent archaeology of known modern peoples to earlier emergent moderns. The use of symbols, the use of space and life history trajectories are examples.

Reconstruction of the Body Morphology of the Hominid from Broken-Hill (Zambia) and the Application of the Results to the Study of Modern Human Evolution and Migrations

In the past few years more consideration has been given to the reconstruction of postcranial morphology of ancient hominids. This tendency is determined by the fact that the morphology of the body has a stable genetic foundation and is a result of ecological adaptation. In our research, we reconstructed the body size and proportions of the archaic Homo Sapiens from Broken-Hill (Zambia). The find is dated to 110 to 130 Kya. and includes the skull and a number of postcranial remains. Based on data of the tibia, sacrum and fragments of two femoral diaphyses, we calculated the height of stature, proportions of lower limbs, width of pelvis and width of shoulders. The results were compared with data on available fossils of European Neanderthals, Near Eastern Paleoanthropoids and early European Homo Sapiens, as well as with literature data on dimensions in different modern populations world-wide. It was found that Broken-Hill is characterised by a very stretched body morphology that is common in tropical high-stature populations of Africa and Australia. The performed analysis shows the correlation in the morphology of hominids of several different evolutionary stages. Thus, we come to the conclusion that the 'tropical' type of body morphology could have been formed very early among our predecessors on the African continent and can be traced up to modern humans. Our results also correspond to the theories of hominid migrations from Africa to Europe through the Near East in the late Pleistocene.

Is There an Empirical Basis for Ecogeographical Patterning in Homo Sapiens?

It has been largely accepted that regional distributions in body form of Homo Sapiens generally conform to 'ecogeographical rules', such as Bergmann's and Allen's. For example, populations of polytypic species which inhabit more northerly clines generally exhibit increased body mass and decreased relative lower limb length than their more equatorial counterpart populations. Simply stated, the physiological basis for this patterning is the dissipation or conservation of body heat.

For a large sample of human populations with world-wide distribution, we examined relationships between several body form (e.g., relative sitting height, crural index, and a proxy for the surface area to volume ratio) and different climatic parameters (e.g., mean annual temperature, humidity and precipitation). Contrary to expectations, we did not find any significant trends. Therefore, we suggest that, at least among modern humans, no empirical generalisations exist for ecogeographical patterning.

Body Size and Shape of KNM-WT 15000

The remarkably complete 1.53 Myr juvenile skeleton, KNM-WT 15000, has been widely interpreted as being essentially modern human with respect to both body size and body proportions. However, this reanalysis suggests that due to the small absolute size its vertebrae, KNM-WT 15000 likely possessed a short trunk relative to modern humans. Furthermore, our predicted stature of 140 to 145 cm for this specimen makes previous estimates too tall. The two most likely explanations for the peculiar body proportions of KNM-WT 15000 are: this specimen suffered from some disease and/or trauma; or this specimen displayed body proportions different from modern humans or australopithecines. If the latter is true, then such body proportions have profound implications regarding our interpretations of early Homo and the appearance of modern human body morphology. Unfortunately, there are no other known specimens that are complete enough to corroborate this explanation. Moreover, KNM-WT 15000 does exhibit evidence that supports the former explanation, but a specific condition has not been identified.